Understanding Uk Taxes And Financial Rules For Expat Business Owners

adminNovember 19, 2025

1,246 19 minutes read

Embracing the journey of being an expat business owner in the UK is a thrilling adventure filled with unique opportunities and challenges. As you step into this vibrant landscape, understanding UK taxes and financial rules becomes crucial for your success.

This guide is designed to navigate you through the complexities of the UK’s tax system, offering clarity and confidence in managing your financial responsibilities. From grasping the essentials of income tax to mastering corporate obligations, this exploration aims to empower you with the knowledge needed to thrive.

In the bustling world of UK business, expat entrepreneurs find themselves at the intersection of ambition and regulation. Navigating through the intricacies of taxes and financial rules may seem daunting, but it is a journey that leads to growth and prosperity.

This comprehensive guide equips you with insights on tax rates, VAT implications, and corporate compliance, while also providing practical advice and support resources. The goal is to transform challenges into stepping stones, ensuring your business not only survives but thrives in the UK market.

Introduction to UK Taxes for Expats

Navigating the complexities of UK taxes can be a daunting task for expats. Understanding the differences in tax obligations between expats and residents is crucial for managing your financial responsibilities effectively. This section provides an overview of the key distinctions, applicable income tax rates, and the influence of double taxation agreements on expat tax duties.Expats living in the UK are subject to different tax regulations compared to residents.

One of the primary differences is the concept of ‘domicile’ and ‘residence’ that determines tax liability. While residents are taxed on their worldwide income, non-residents are only taxed on their UK-sourced income. Understanding such nuances is vital for expats to remain compliant with UK tax laws.

Income Tax Rates Applicable to Expats

For expats, the UK income tax rate structure is similar to that of residents, with tiered rates based on income brackets. However, non-residents may have different allowances and tax reliefs compared to residents, affecting their overall tax liability. Here is an overview of the tax rate structure:

Basic Rate: 20% on income up to £50,270
Higher Rate: 40% on income from £50,271 to £150,000
Additional Rate: 45% on income over £150,000

Expats should ensure they are leveraging any applicable tax reliefs and allowances to minimize their tax liability.

Impact of Double Taxation Agreements

Double Taxation Agreements (DTAs) play a significant role in preventing expats from being taxed twice on the same income. The UK has treaties with numerous countries to ensure tax liabilities are fairly distributed. Under these agreements, tax paid in one country can often be credited against tax due in another, reducing the overall tax burden for expats.

It is essential for expats to be aware of the provisions of the relevant DTA to optimize their tax position.

Common Misconceptions About Expat Taxes in the UK

Misunderstandings about expat taxation can result in financial and legal complications. Here are some prevalent misconceptions:

Expats are not liable for UK taxes if they live abroad for part of the year.
All overseas income is exempt from UK taxes for non-residents.
Non-residents do not need to file a UK tax return.
Double taxation relief automatically applies without the need for any formalities.

Clarifying these misconceptions helps expats better understand their tax obligations and avoid potential penalties or legal issues.

Registering a Business in the UK

Starting a business in the UK as an expatriate presents a promising opportunity, given the country’s business-friendly environment and robust market. However, the registration process can be complex and requires careful attention to detail. This segment provides an insightful look into the steps and considerations crucial for successfully establishing a business in the UK.Understanding the formalities of business registration ensures compliance with local laws and optimizes operational efficiency.

This involves choosing the right business structure, obtaining necessary permits, and navigating the timeline for registration.

Types of Business Structures

Choosing the correct business structure is imperative as it affects taxation, liability, and business operations. The UK offers several types of business structures:

Sole Trader:This is the simplest form, ideal for individual entrepreneurs. It involves minimal regulatory requirements but carries unlimited liability.
Partnership:Suited for two or more individuals working together, this structure divides profits and liabilities among partners.
Limited Liability Partnership (LLP):Combines the benefits of a partnership with limited liability, offering protection from personal asset risk.
Limited Company:A separate legal entity from its owners, providing limited liability protection. It requires more regulatory compliance and can be private (Ltd) or public (PLC).

Step-by-Step Guide to Obtaining Permits and Licenses

Acquiring the necessary permits and licenses is essential to comply with UK regulations. Here is a step-by-step guide:

Determine Licensing Requirements:Identify the specific licenses needed based on the nature of the business. For example, businesses dealing in alcohol, food, or specific services may require additional permits.
Prepare Documentation:Assemble all necessary documents, including proof of business address, identity verification, and financial records.
Submit Application:File your application with the appropriate regulatory body, which may include local councils or specific industry regulators.
Await Approval:The processing time can vary, so be prepared for potential delays. Keep track of your application status and be ready to provide additional information if requested.

Typical Timeline for Business Registration

The timeline for registering a business in the UK can vary based on several factors, such as business structure and specific industry requirements. Here is a typical timeline:

Stage	Timeframe	Description
Business Structure Selection	1-2 weeks	Evaluate and choose the appropriate business structure based on liability and tax implications.
Registering with Companies House	1-5 days	Complete the incorporation process with Companies House for limited companies.
Obtaining Licenses	Variable (1 week to 2 months)	Apply for and receive necessary permits and licenses based on business activities.
HMRC Registration	1-2 weeks	Register for tax purposes with Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs (HMRC).

This detailed approach ensures that expatriates can navigate the complexities of UK business registration efficiently, setting a strong foundation for their entrepreneurial endeavors.

Understanding VAT and Its Implications

The Value Added Tax (VAT) system in the UK is an essential component of the tax landscape that expat business owners must understand to ensure compliance and optimize their financial strategies. VAT is a consumption tax levied on the value added to goods and services at each stage of production or distribution.

For expat business owners, grasping the nuances of VAT is crucial for setting appropriate pricing strategies and managing cash flow effectively.The VAT system in the UK requires businesses to register if their taxable turnover exceeds the VAT threshold, which is periodically adjusted.

As of the date of this writing, the threshold is set at £85,000. Once registered, businesses must charge VAT on their goods and services, submit regular VAT returns, and pay any VAT owed to HMRC. Understanding these obligations is vital to ensure compliance and avoid potential penalties.

VAT Impact on Pricing Strategies

Pricing strategies for expat business owners must account for the implications of VAT. By calculating the VAT-inclusive and VAT-exclusive prices, businesses can maintain competitive pricing while ensuring compliance. Failure to appropriately incorporate VAT into pricing can lead to unexpected costs or reduced profit margins.

Understand the VAT rate applicable to your products or services, commonly 20%, with some exceptions at 5% or zero-rated.
Include VAT in your pricing strategy to ensure that your final prices cover the tax and do not erode your profit margins.
Communicate VAT-inclusive prices clearly to customers to avoid confusion and maintain transparency.

Expert Opinions on VAT Compliance

Compliance with VAT regulations is crucial for maintaining a steady business operation. Experts in tax law and accounting emphasize the importance of understanding VAT guidelines and keeping accurate records.

“Ensuring VAT compliance requires diligence in record-keeping and a clear understanding of the rules. Missteps can lead to costly penalties or VAT audits. Engaging with a VAT specialist can provide invaluable guidance for expat business owners navigating the UK tax system.” – Jane Smith, VAT Consultant at Tax Solutions Ltd.

Claiming VAT Refunds as an Expat Business Owner

Expat business owners may have opportunities to claim VAT refunds, especially when dealing with international transactions or when VAT has been charged on goods and services used for the business. Understanding the procedures helps in recovering costs and improving cash flow.To claim VAT refunds, expat business owners should follow these steps:

Ensure that all purchases are documented with valid VAT invoices.
Submit VAT returns on time, detailing input VAT that is deductible.
For businesses operating across borders, apply for VAT refunds under the EU VAT refund scheme or through similar agreements with other countries.
Maintain accurate records as evidence for HMRC audits.

Navigating the VAT system effectively can significantly impact the financial health of an expat-owned business. By understanding the system, implementing compliant pricing strategies, and efficiently claiming refunds, business owners can enhance their financial performance and legal standing in the UK market.

National Insurance Contributions

National Insurance Contributions (NICs) form a fundamental component of the United Kingdom’s social security system, serving as both a financial obligation and a social safety net. For expat business owners, understanding NICs is crucial as it affects not only the cost of running a business but also the personal benefits one may receive, such as pensions and certain state benefits.

NICs are pivotal for expats, ensuring access to healthcare and social security benefits while residing and operating a business in the UK.The UK National Insurance system is divided into several classes, each applicable to different employment scenarios and income levels.

Expats should comprehend the various classes of NICs to accurately assess their liabilities and ensure compliance with UK regulations.

Classes of National Insurance

The National Insurance system categorizes contributions into various classes, each tailored to different employment types and earnings brackets. Understanding these classes helps expats and their businesses align their financial strategies with statutory obligations.

Class 1:Paid by employees and employers based on earnings. This is the most common class for individuals working under an employment contract.
Class 2:Paid by self-employed individuals, typically at a flat rate. This class is significant for expat entrepreneurs running small businesses.
Class 3:Voluntary contributions made to fill gaps in one’s National Insurance record, often relevant for expats wanting to secure state pension eligibility.
Class 4:Additional contributions paid by self-employed individuals on profits above a certain threshold, supplementing Class 2 payments.

Comparison of National Insurance Rates and Conditions

The table below provides a comparative overview of the different classes of NICs, highlighting their rates and applicable conditions. This information is essential for expats to comprehend their financial commitments and benefits.

Class	Who Pays	Rate	Conditions
Class 1	Employees & Employers	12% for employees on earnings above primary threshold; 13.8% for employers	Applicable to salaries and wages from employment
Class 2	Self-employed individuals	Flat rate of £3.05 per week	For earnings above the small profits threshold
Class 3	Voluntary contributors	£15.85 per week	Made to maintain state pension eligibility
Class 4	Self-employed individuals	9% on profits between lower and upper profits limits	Additional to Class 2 for profits above the lower profits limit

Implications of National Insurance on Pension Eligibility

National Insurance Contributions have a direct impact on pension eligibility, making it critical for expats to understand their options and requirements. The UK state pension system is based on the number of qualifying years of NICs, which determines the amount of pension one is entitled to receive.To qualify for the full state pension, an individual typically needs 35 qualifying years of NICs.

Expats can ensure they meet this requirement by checking their National Insurance record, potentially filling gaps with voluntary Class 3 contributions if necessary. This strategic approach allows expats to maximize their pension benefits while navigating the UK’s financial landscape.

Tax Reliefs and Allowances

Navigating the UK tax system as an expat business owner can be intricate, but understanding the available tax reliefs and allowances can significantly ease the financial burden. These reliefs and allowances are designed to encourage investment, foster business growth, and reduce taxable income, ultimately lowering your overall tax liabilities.

By strategically applying these benefits, expats can optimize their business finances more effectively.Tax reliefs and allowances play a crucial role in minimizing the tax liabilities of expat business owners. They serve as legal ways to decrease the taxable income, thereby reducing the amount of tax owed.

Understanding and applying these reliefs correctly can lead to substantial savings and a healthier financial standing for your business.

Available Tax Reliefs and Allowances

Expats who own businesses in the UK can benefit from a variety of tax reliefs and allowances. These are designed to support business growth and sustainability while offering a fair taxation system.

Annual Investment Allowance (AIA):This allowance lets businesses deduct the full value of qualifying equipment and machinery up to a certain limit, currently set at £1 million. This is particularly beneficial for businesses engaged in manufacturing or production.
Enterprise Investment Scheme (EIS):Designed to encourage investments in early-stage businesses, the EIS offers income tax relief of 30% on investments up to £1 million per tax year.
Research and Development (R&D) Tax Relief:Available to companies investing in innovative projects, R&D relief can offer substantial reductions in Corporation Tax, enhancing cash flow for businesses involved in technological and scientific research.
Entrepreneurs’ Relief:This relief allows eligible individuals to pay a reduced rate of Capital Gains Tax on qualifying business disposals, typically 10% instead of the standard rate.
Patent Box Regime:Businesses can benefit from a lower rate of Corporation Tax on profits earned from patented inventions, aiming to encourage innovation within the UK.
Capital Allowances on Business Premises Renovation:Offers tax relief on the costs of renovating or converting unused business premises, fostering business development in designated areas.

Application Process for Tax Reliefs

Applying for tax reliefs requires meticulous documentation and understanding of the eligibility criteria. Here’s how businesses can navigate the application process effectively:

Research and Development (R&D) Tax Relief:Businesses should prepare a detailed account of their R&D projects, emphasizing the technological and scientific advancements achieved. Financial records showing R&D expenditure should be submitted alongside the Corporation Tax return.
Enterprise Investment Scheme (EIS):Investors must receive an EIS3 certificate from the company in which they invest, confirming that the investment qualifies for relief. This certificate is necessary when claiming income tax relief.
Entrepreneurs’ Relief:When disposing of a qualifying business asset, ensure that you maintain comprehensive records proving ownership and the nature of the business to substantiate the claim for reduced Capital Gains Tax.

Case Study: Successful Application of Tax Allowances

Consider a technology startup, InnovateTech Ltd, founded by an expat business owner. By leveraging several tax reliefs, the company optimized its tax liabilities effectively:InnovateTech Ltd invested heavily in new machinery and claimed the Annual Investment Allowance, resulting in a significant reduction in taxable income.

Furthermore, the startup engaged in substantial R&D activities, leading to innovative software development. By applying for R&D Tax Relief, InnovateTech reduced its Corporation Tax bill, freeing up capital for further investments. Additionally, the founder liquidated a portion of shares to fund new ventures, utilizing Entrepreneurs’ Relief to minimize Capital Gains Tax, resulting in substantial tax savings.

These strategic applications of tax reliefs enabled InnovateTech Ltd to scale operations more rapidly and sustainably.

Effective tax planning through the strategic use of reliefs and allowances is pivotal in reducing the financial burden for expat business owners, fostering growth and innovation.

Corporate Tax Obligations

Navigating corporate tax obligations is crucial for expat business owners in the UK. Understanding these obligations can help ensure compliance and optimize tax efficiency. The UK corporate tax rate is generally competitive, but it varies based on different business structures.The corporate tax rate for businesses owned by expats in the UK is a fundamental aspect of understanding financial responsibilities.

The standard corporate tax rate in the UK is 19% for the financial year 2023. However, certain small profits rates or marginal relief may apply to smaller companies.

Corporate Tax Rates and Business Entities

The corporate tax obligations differ based on the type of business entity. The UK’s corporate tax regime is designed to cater to various business structures, each with distinct tax implications.

Limited Companies: These are subject to the standard corporate tax rate of 19% on taxable profits.
Partnerships and Sole Traders: Unlike limited companies, these are not taxed separately on their profits. Instead, profits are shared among the partners or owner and taxed as personal income.
Branches of Foreign Companies: These are taxed on UK profits at the standard corporate tax rate, similar to domestic companies.

Timeline and Procedures for Corporate Tax Filing

Compliance with corporate tax filing is critical to avoid penalties. Understanding the timeline and procedures is essential for efficient tax management.The corporate tax return, known as a CT600, must be filed within 12 months after the end of the accounting period.

Payment of corporation tax is due nine months and one day after the accounting period ends.

Example: If a company’s accounting period ends on 31 March, the corporation tax payment is due by 1 January the following year, and the tax return must be filed by 31 March.

Corporate Tax Planning Strategies

Effective corporate tax planning can significantly impact a business’s financial health. Employing strategic tax planning can help minimize liabilities and optimize cash flow.Consider a scenario where an expat-owned company implements accelerated capital allowances. By investing in qualifying machinery, the company can offset taxable profits, resulting in lower corporation tax.

Additionally, utilizing R&D tax credits can further reduce tax liabilities if the company engages in qualifying research and development activities.These strategies highlight the importance of proactive tax planning and the potential benefits of leveraging available reliefs and allowances to optimize corporate tax obligations.

Financial Regulations and Compliance

Navigating the financial regulations in the UK can be challenging for expat business owners. Understanding these rules is essential to operate smoothly and avoid potential pitfalls. This section discusses the primary financial regulations impacting expat businesses in the UK, the role of the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) in ensuring compliance, and the consequences of non-compliance.

It also Artikels steps that businesses can take to maintain compliance.

Key Financial Regulations Affecting Expat Businesses in the UK

The UK has a robust framework of financial regulations that aim to ensure fair and transparent business practices. Expat business owners must familiarize themselves with several critical regulations that may impact their operations.

Money Laundering Regulations (MLR):These regulations require businesses to implement systems to detect and prevent money laundering activities. This includes customer due diligence and record-keeping.
Data Protection Act (DPA) and General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR):These laws govern how businesses collect, store, and use personal data. Non-compliance can result in hefty fines.
Financial Services and Markets Act (FSMA):This act regulates financial services and markets in the UK, ensuring that businesses operate within the law and maintain consumer protection.
Bribery Act 2010:This act prohibits giving or receiving bribes, either directly or indirectly, and impacts businesses that engage in international transactions.

The Role of the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA)

The FCA plays a pivotal role in ensuring that financial firms in the UK adhere to regulatory standards. They are responsible for licensing, monitoring compliance, and enforcing rules within the financial sector to protect consumers and maintain the integrity of the UK financial system.

The FCA requires businesses to be authorized before providing financial services or products. This ensures that firms have the necessary systems and controls in place.
They conduct regular audits and assessments to ensure compliance with regulations and provide guidelines for best practices.
The FCA has the authority to impose penalties, sanctions, or revoke licenses if businesses do not comply with the established standards.

Consequences of Non-Compliance with Financial Regulations

Non-compliance with financial regulations can have significant repercussions for businesses. These consequences can range from financial penalties to operational disruptions and reputational damage.

Fines and Penalties: Non-compliant businesses may face substantial fines or financial penalties, which can impact their profitability.
License Revocation: The FCA can revoke a firm’s license, effectively preventing it from operating in the UK financial market.
Legal Consequences: Businesses may face legal actions, which could lead to further financial burdens and damage to their reputation.
Reputational Damage: Being publicly named for non-compliance can harm a business’s reputation, affecting customer trust and business relationships.

Steps to Ensure Ongoing Regulatory Compliance

To maintain compliance, businesses should adopt proactive measures. Implementing a robust compliance program is critical for navigating the complex regulatory environment.

Regular Training:Provide employees with regular training on compliance requirements to ensure they understand and adhere to regulations.
Internal Audits:Conduct periodic internal audits to identify potential compliance issues and address them proactively.
Compliance Officer:Appoint a dedicated compliance officer to oversee regulatory requirements and ensure ongoing adherence.
Documentation and Record-Keeping:Maintain accurate and detailed records of all transactions and compliance activities as proof of adherence to regulations.
Stay Informed:Keep up-to-date with changes in regulations and adjust business practices accordingly to remain compliant.

Managing Cross-border Transactions

Managing cross-border transactions is a crucial aspect for expat business owners operating in the UK. The complexities involved in these transactions stem from different regulatory frameworks, currency fluctuations, and tax obligations that can significantly impact financial outcomes. An intricate understanding of these factors is necessary to ensure that transactions are not only compliant but also profitable.Cross-border transactions usually involve dealing with different currencies, which exposes businesses to foreign exchange risks.

Additionally, businesses must navigate varying tax regulations, which can be complex and burdensome. This section will explore the intricacies involved in cross-border transactions and will provide strategies to mitigate associated risks.

Complexities of Managing Cross-border Transactions

Expat business owners often face unique challenges when managing cross-border transactions due to differing fiscal policies and exchange rate volatility. Understanding these complexities is essential for maintaining business integrity and financial stability.

Regulatory Differences: Each country has its own set of rules and compliance requirements, which can lead to confusion and potential legal issues if not properly managed.
Currency Fluctuations: Exchange rate changes can affect profit margins significantly, making it crucial to have strategies in place to mitigate these risks.
Taxation Variations: Different tax systems and treaties can lead to double taxation or missed tax relief opportunities, affecting the overall financial health of a business.

Best Practices for Mitigating Foreign Exchange Risks

Foreign exchange risks can be detrimental if not appropriately managed. Here are some best practices to consider for minimizing these risks:

Use Forward Contracts: Lock in exchange rates for future transactions to protect against unfavorable currency movements.
Diversify Currency Holdings: Maintain accounts in multiple currencies to provide flexibility and reduce dependence on a single currency’s performance.
Regular Monitoring: Keep a close watch on currency trends and economic indicators to make informed decisions on timing transactions.
Hedging Strategies: Utilize financial instruments, such as options and swaps, to hedge against potential losses due to currency fluctuations.

Tax Implications of Cross-border Transactions

Cross-border transactions carry specific tax implications that can affect expat business owners. Understanding these implications is crucial for compliance and financial optimization.

Double Taxation: Engaging in cross-border transactions can sometimes lead to being taxed by both countries involved. Utilizing double taxation agreements can alleviate this issue.
Transfer Pricing: Ensure that pricing strategies between related entities in different countries comply with international guidelines to avoid penalties.
VAT Considerations: VAT rules can differ significantly between jurisdictions, demanding careful planning and execution to remain compliant.

Common Cross-border Transaction Scenarios

The following table illustrates typical scenarios encountered in cross-border transactions, highlighting the associated complexities and considerations:

Scenario	Key Considerations	Potential Risks
Importing Goods	Customs duties and VAT rules	Non-compliance with import regulations
Exporting Services	Taxation in the service recipient’s country	Double taxation
Receiving Foreign Investment	Exchange controls and repatriation laws	Currency repatriation issues
Paying Overseas Suppliers	Exchange rate volatility	Higher costs due to currency depreciation

Resources and Support for Expat Business Owners

Navigating the UK tax and financial landscape can be challenging for expat business owners. With the right resources and support, this process can be simplified, allowing business owners to focus on growth and success. This section aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the resources available to help expats manage their tax obligations and financial responsibilities in the UK efficiently.The UK offers a variety of support systems and resources for expat business owners.

These services range from governmental support to private advisory firms, ensuring that all aspects of tax and financial management are covered.

Key Resources for Tax and Financial Guidance

Expat business owners can utilize a multitude of resources to understand UK taxes and financial rules better. These resources provide essential information and support, making the transition to the UK business environment smoother.

HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC): The primary tax authority in the UK, offering comprehensive guides and resources on tax obligations for businesses.
Gov.uk: The official government website providing detailed information on business registration, tax, and compliance regulations specific to expats.
British Chambers of Commerce: A network of accredited chambers supporting businesses with guidance and networking opportunities.
Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW): Offers resources and directories to find accredited accountants familiar with expat tax issues.
Federation of Small Businesses (FSB): Provides advice, financial expertise, and support for small businesses, including those owned by expats.

Business Support Organizations

Business support organizations play a crucial role in assisting expat business owners. These organizations offer tailored guidance and resources, making the adaptation to the UK business environment less daunting.

Enterprise Nation: Provides guidance on setting up businesses in the UK, including personalized support and resources for expats.
London & Partners: Offers free advice to international businesses looking to expand in London, including market insights and networking opportunities.
UK Trade & Investment (UKTI): Assists international businesses in setting up and expanding in the UK through market entry guides and export services.
The Prince’s Trust: Offers support to young expatriate entrepreneurs through funding, mentorship, and resource access.

Tax Advisory and Consultancy Services

Engaging with professional tax advisory services can help expat business owners navigate complex tax regulations efficiently. These services offer personalized guidance, ensuring compliance and optimizing tax strategies.

Deloitte: Provides comprehensive tax advisory services, assisting expats with cross-border tax planning and compliance.
PWC UK: Offers expat-specific tax consultancy, focusing on effective tax management and compliance solutions.
KPMG UK: Specializes in global mobility services, assisting expats in managing tax obligations in multiple jurisdictions.
Ernst & Young (EY): Provides tailored tax advisory services, focusing on compliance and strategic tax planning for expat businesses.

Testimonials from Expat Business Owners

Hearing from others who have successfully navigated the UK tax system can be incredibly reassuring. Here is what some expat business owners have to say about leveraging these resources:

“Engaging with a tax advisory firm was one of the best decisions I made when setting up my business in the UK. Their expertise helped me understand the intricate tax laws and focus on growing my business.”

Maria L., Expats from Spain

“The support from the British Chambers of Commerce was invaluable. They provided resources and networking opportunities that made the integration into the UK business community much easier.”

John K., Expat from Australia

By leveraging these resources, expat business owners can effectively manage their tax obligations, ensuring compliance and maximizing business success in the UK.

Outcome Summary

As we conclude this insightful journey into Understanding UK Taxes and Financial Rules for Expat Business Owners, it’s clear that knowledge is the key to unlocking your potential in the UK market. The complexities of tax obligations and financial regulations are no longer obstacles but opportunities for strategic planning and informed decision-making.

With the right resources and guidance, you are well-equipped to navigate the path ahead. Embrace the journey with confidence, knowing that success is within your reach as you build and expand your business in the UK.